B2 Grammar: So and such, too and enough

So and such

So and such (a/an) mean very, extremely: That was so kind of you! You have such a beautiful house.

So and such (a/an) are used to talk about cause and effect: He was so late that he missed the beginning of the exam. She gave such a good performance that she won an Oscar.

So	Such
so + adjective or adverb (+that): ·         He was so nervous before the exam that he couldn’t sleep at all. ·         That remark was just so silly! ·         He cooks so well that I think he’ll win the competition.	such + adjective + uncountable noun / plural noun (+that): ·         She has such nice children! ·         Switzerland has such spectacular scenery that we always choose it for our holidays.
So + much/many/few/little + noun (+that): We had so little money left at the end of our holiday that we had to sleep at the station. Marta makes so many mistakes when she’s speaking!	Such a/an + adjective + singular countable noun (+ that): Why did you come in such an old pair of jeans? It was such a beautiful day that we decided to go for a picnic. Such a lot of … Elena’s got such a lot of friends that the telephone never stops ringing.

B2 Grammar: Countable and uncountable nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Nouns can be either countable (C) or uncountable (U).

Some nouns can be both countable (C) and uncountable (U), but with a difference in meaning: They say it’s healthy to drink tea (U) (tea in general). Would you like a tea (C) (a cup of tea)? Living in a large house is a lot of work (U). That picture is a work (C) of art.

The grammar for countable nouns is different from the grammar for uncountable nouns.

Countable nouns: Use a our an in the singular, e.g. a job, an animal Can be made plural, e.g. cars, books Use some and any in the plural, e.g. some friends, any answers. Use few and man in the plural, e.g. few students, many years

Uncountable nouns: Do not use a or an Cannot be made plural, e.g. work, music Use verbs in the singular, e.g. the news is good, music helps me relax Use some and any in the singular, e.g. some food, any advice Use little and much, e.g. little information, much homework Use other words to refer to a quantity, e.g. a piece of advice, an amount

Some common uncountable nouns in English Accommodation        advice          behaviour       countryside       damage             equipment Experience                 food             furniture         homework        housework        information Knowledge                luggage        media             music                news                 paper Pollution                    research       scenery           smoke               software           stuff Transport                   work

Articles

The indefinite article A or an are used: ·         With singular, countable nouns mentioned for the first time: A blue car came round the corner. A strange man with a black beard walked through the door. ·         To express rates: He drove at 50 kilometres an hour. She earns €50,000 a year. A or an are not used with uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns: More women go to university in Spain that men. Knowledge makes people powerful. ·         Use an before vowels: an email (but not when “u” or “e” produces a “y” sound: a useful tool, a European student, a university). ·         When “h” is silent, use an: an hour, an honest man. The definite article The is used: ·         With things we have mentioned before or it’s clear who or what we are referring to from the context: I’ve got a new teacher. The teacher is from California. Cold you go to the bank for me, please? (i.e. the bank we always use). ·         With things which are unique: the internet, the Moon ·         With adjectives to express groups: In this country, the rich are growing richer and the poor are growing poorer. ·         With nationalities the French, the Spanish, the Italians (Note: Nationality adjectives ending in –sh, -ch, -ese and –ss have a singular form but are plural in meaning: the English, the Dutch, the Chinese, the Swiss; the English drink a lot of tea, the Chinese are very hard-working. Other nationality adjectives have a plural form and a plural meaning: the Americans, the Poles; I think the Brazilians are going to win the World Cup again. ·         With superlatives: the best,  the longest, etc. ·         With the firs, the second, the third used as adjectives: Manolo won the first prize and Igor won the second. ·         With names of countries which include these words Republic, Kingdom States or Emirates: The United States, The Czech Republic, The United Kingdom, etc. ·         With names of rivers, mountain ranges, seas and oceans: the Nile, the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pacific. Do not use the: ·         When talking in general and in the plural: Teachers are not paid enough. I can’t imagine offices without computers. Life is hard. Everyone needs love. ·         With many common expressions: In/to bed        to church     at home In/to hospital     in/to prison     at/to school At/to university     at/to work He’s in bed. I’m at university. What time do you go to work? She’s been taken to hospital.

B2 Grammar: To infinitive or -ING

Infitinives and verb + -ing forms

Infinitive

The infinitive is used:

• To say why you do something: I’ve just gone running to get some exercise. He’s taken up tennis to make friends.
• To say why something exists: There’s an example to help you.
• After too and enough: It’s too cold to go swimming today. He isn’t good enough to make the national team.

The infinitive is used after these verb patterns:

• Verb + to infinitive: She agreed to meet him after work.

agree          appear          begin          bother          decide          demand          fail

hope          learn          manage          offer          plan          refuse         seem

be supposed          threaten

• Verb + (somebody/something) + to infinitive:

She expected to win the race. I expect you to play in the match.

ask          choose          expect          help          intend          promise          want

• Verb + somebody/something + to infinitive: the money enabled him to go to university.

advise         allow          enable          encourage          forbid          force          invite

order          permit          persuade          recommend          remind          teach

tell          warn

The following verbs from the lists above can be used to report speech:

advise          agree          allow          ask          decide          encourage          forbid          invite

offer          order          permit          persuade           promise          recommend          refuse

remind          tell          threaten          warn

Verb + -ing

The verb + -ing is used:

• After prepositions: He’s made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club. We watched a film about climbing in the mountains.
• As subjects or objects of a sentence: Climbing is safer than it looks. He decided to take up adventure racing.

The verb + -ing is used after these verbs:

admit          appreciate          avoid          celebrate          consider          delay          deny

dislike          enjoy          finish           imagine          involve          keep          mind

miss          postpone          practise          regret          risk          stop          suggest

I really enjoyed winning that match. 
She suggested playing a game of squash after school.

The following verbs from the list can be used in reported speech:

Admit          deny          regret          suggest

The verb + -ing is used after theses expressions:

it’s no good          it’s not worth          it’s no use          it’s a waste of time          can’t stand

can’t bear          can’t help

It’s not worth joining that sports club.
It’s a waste of time entering the competition unless you’re really fit.
I can’t bear watching my team when they play badly.

Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a verb + -ing with the same meaning:

begin          continue          hate*          like*          love*          prefer*          start

I love playing tennis. I love to play tennis.

It continued raining all day. It continued to rain all day.

*When these verbs are used with would, they are always followed by the infinitive: I wouldn’t like to do an adventure race. I’d prefer to watch it on television.

Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a verb + -ing with a difference in meaning

	verb + infinitive	verb + -ing
remember	Did you remember to bring  your running  shoes? (an action you have to do)	I remember feeling very tired at the end of the race (a memory of something in the past)
forget	Don’t forget to bring your tennis racket (an action you have to do).	I’ll never forget winning my first tennis championship (a memory of something in the past)*
regreat	I regret to tell you the race has been cancelled (regret + to say / to tell / to inform means: I’m sorry to give you this information).	I regret not training harder before the race (I’m sorry I didn’t do this).
try	I’m running every day because I’m trying to get fit (my objective is to get fit).	If you want to get fit, why don’t you try swimming? (swimming is a method to reach your objective)
mean	Nadal means to win the championship (this is his intention).	I wanted to be a swimming champion, but it meant going to the pool every day at 5.30 (it involved).
stop	Halfway through the marathon, he stopped to drink some water (in order to drink some water).	When he realised he couldn’t win, he stopped running (he didn’t continue).

*This form is unusual. It is more normal to use (not) remember:

• I don’t remember riding a bike the first time.
• I forget riding a bike the first time.