B2 Grammar: Reported Speech I

Reported speech 1

Tense changes in reported speech

If the reporting verb (said, told, admitted, warned, etc.) is in the past, make the following tense changes:

• present simple → past simple: I live in Berlin. → She said she lived in Berlin.
• present continuous → past continuous: I’m watching TV. → He said he was watching TV.
• present perfect → past perfect: I’ve seen the film already. → She said she had seen the film already.
• past simple → past perfect: I missed the concert. → He told me he had missed the concert.
• Will → would: I’ll phone you soon. → She promised she would phone me soon.

These modal verbs also change:

• can → could: I can understand German, but I can’t speak it. → She said she could understand German but she couldn’t speak it.
• may → might: I may give the book to John. → The teacher suggested he might give the book to John.
• must → had to: I must cook supper. → Tanya said she had to cook supper.

B2 Grammar: Linking words for contrast

Linking words for contrast

Although, even though, while and whereas

• Although, even though, while and whereas are used to put two contrasting ideas in one sentence: I didn’t buy the car although I thought it was beautiful.
• They can be placed at the beginning of the sentence or in the middle, between the two contrasting ideas: It was late. She decided to phone him. → Although it was late, she decided to phone him. OR She decided to phone him although it was late.
• When the sentence begins with although, even though, while or whereas, we separate the two parts with a comma. When these words are placed in the middle, no comma is used: Berlin is a noisy city. My home village is quite peaceful. → While Berlin is a noisy city, my home village is quite peaceful. OR Berlin is a noisy city whereas my home village is quite peaceful.
• Even though is stronger than although: I didn’t buy the car even though I had me money ready in my pocket.

B2 Grammar: Modal verbs to express certainty and possibility

Modal verbs to express certainty and possibility

To express certainty about the present	·        Use must: She’s been in over 15 films, so she must be very well known. Note: we usually have a good reason for expressing this certainty, e.g. She’s been in over 15 films. ·        Use can’t or couldn’t for the negative (not mustn’t). You can’t be tired. You’ve just got out of bed! Mark couldn’t be coming to the party – he’s on holiday in America at the moment.
To express certainty about the past	·        Use must have + past participle: You have a very big part in the play. It must have taken you ages to learn all the lines. ·        Use can’t have and couldn’t have + past participle for the negative: She can’t have left her glasses at home – I saw her wearing them on the bus. She couldn’t have stolen the money because she’s far too honest!
To express possibility about the present or future	·        Use may, might or could: I may come and visit you next summer. We might go to the cinema this evening if we finish all our work in time. We’d better go out for a walk now because it could rain later. ·        Use may not and might not (not mayn’t or mightn’t) for the negative (not can’t or couldn’t which express certainty): Frankie is looking very pale. He may not be very well. Don’t cook any dinner for me because I might not be back in time.
To express possibility about the past	·        Use may have, might have, could have, may not have, might not have + past participle: It’s unlike Sally to be late. She may have overslept, or she might not have remembered the appointment.

B2 Grammar: Verbs expressing ability

Expressing ability

To say someone has an ability, use can, can’t, could, couldn’t, be able to and manage.

·    In the present, use:

can or am / is/ are able to for things which are possible: Francesca can speak five languages, but she can’t speak Russian. She’s able to play the piano but she isn’t able to play the violin.

can’t or am not / isn’t / aren’t able to for things which are not possible (see examples above).

Note: We usually use can and can’t when speaking because they are shorter.

·    In the past, use:

could only when you are speaking in general: When I was a child, I could read without glasses. (not I was able to read without glasses).

was / were able to when you are speaking about one particular occasion: Dad didn’t have any money on him, but fortunately he was able to use his credit card to pay the bill. (not he could use his credit card to pay the bill).

couldn’t and wasn’t / weren’t able to when you are speaking in general and also when you are speaking about one particular occasion: Pascual wasn’t able to / couldn’t do all the questions in the maths exam. Olga couldn’t / wasn’t able to ride a bike till she was 18.

B2 Grammar: As and like

As and like

As

Use as:

·    to say someone or something is that thing, or has that function: He works as a nurse. She uses email as a way of keeping in touch with her friends. Can I give you some advice as a friend?

·    before a subject + verb: Things happened exactly as I had predicted (in the way I predicted).

·    to mean because: As Mum is away, I’m going to cook lunch today.

·    after certain verbs including describe as, consider as, regard as: The teachers regard you as the best group of students in the school. The police are describing him as extremely dangerous.

·    with adjectives and adverbs to make comparisons: Mike is not as clever as his sister.

·    to mean for example in the phrase such as: I spent the summer travelling round Europe and visiting lots of places such as Venice, Florence and Barcelona.

·    with same…as: You’re wearing the same colour shirt as me!

·    in these phrases:

o as far as I know (I think it’s true but I don’t know all the facts): As far as I know, Woody Allen has never won an Oscar.

o as far as I’m concerned (this is my personal opinion): I don’t mind how much money you spend on clothes – you can spend all your money on clothes as far as I’m concerned.

o as far as I can see/tell (this is what I’ve noticed or understood): Arsenal aren’t going to win the cup this year as far as I can see.

Prom time!

Big dresses, huge cars, smart suits and lots of fun ... What exactly is a school prom and how is it taking over from the school disco?

Instructions

Proms are big news in Britain these days. A school prom is a formal party to celebrate an important date at school such as the end of secondary school or after completing school exams in Year 11 (aged 15-16) and in Year 13 (aged 17-18). Some pupils also have a school prom when they finish primary school. A secondary school prom often involves a big party, big dresses and huge cars.

Prom parties 

Proms are held in June or July, around the end of exam time or the end of term. The idea is to have fun with your school friends and celebrate your time and achievements at school. Some schools hold a luxury party in a five-star hotel. Others have a more basic dinner in the school hall. The school can organise the prom or they can pay a professional organisation to arrange it. A prom organiser provides everything for the special event including the party location, balloons, food, music, cars and clothes.

Clothes and beauty

Young people like to dress up for their prom. Many teenagers wear school uniform in the UK but on prom night lots of girls swap their uniform for an elegant evening dress and high heels. Boys that are usually only seen in jeans and trainers when not at school dress up in a suit with a tie and smart shoes. The right hairstyle and make-up are important too. Some beauty salons offer a special ‘prom deal’ which includes hair, make-up, eyelashes, nails and a spray tan. A tan is fashionable with both boys and girls.

Cars

Arriving at your prom by chauffeur-driven limousine is very popular! Other young people like to travel by truck or in large 4x4 vehicles. The party can start on the way to the dinner or dance. Part of the fun for some prom-goers is to drive around town in their best clothes and make sure that everyone sees them. Two sixteen-year-old girls with a sense of humour arrived at their school prom in Somerset both dressed as Barbie. Did they arrive in a limo? No, they travelled in a more original style. Their mothers made each girl a life-sized Barbie box and the friends arrived at the prom party in their boxes on the back of a trailer!

Money

The school prom is big business. According to a recent newspaper report the average prom costs parents over £200 per teenager. Many pay much, much more. The cost can include a ticket for the prom party (which is often a three-course dinner followed by dancing) as well as new clothes, shoes, a visit to the hairdressers, a spray tan and probably car hire. Not all families have money to spend on their teenager’s prom of course. How do less wealthy pupils find a way to look good at the school prom? Some teenagers work part-time to cover their prom expenses. Popular jobs include babysitting, shop work and working as a waiter or waitress.

An American tradition

Ten years ago most British schools didn’t have school proms. They probably had a simple school disco at the end of term. Now more than 85% of schools in Britain have a prom. The modern British school prom is not popular with some parents of teenagers. Many adults see the prom is an import from the USA. They say that American TV programmes and films such as ‘High School Musical’ have a big influence on their kids.

Read the text about school proms then do these exercises to check your understanding.

1. Check your understanding: true or false Circle True or False for these sentences.

1. A prom is a party to celebrate the end of exams or finishing school. True False
2. Proms are always held in hotels. True False
3. Boys and girls usually wear their school uniform for their prom. True False
4. Two girls travelled to their prom in a box. True False
5. A spray tan for the prom is popular with boys and girls. True False
6. The prom tradition started in Australia. True False

2. Check your understanding: grouping

Write the words into the correct group.

trailer	high heels	babysitting	suit
limousine	shop work	limo	jeans
trainers	waitress	car	dress
tie

clothes	vehicles	shoes	jobs

3. Check your understanding: multiple choice

Circle the correct verb to complete the sentences.

1. Some pupils also _____ a school prom when they finish primary school. have make do
2. Proms are _____ in June or July. made held done
3. Some schools _____ a luxury party in a five-star hotel. do make hold
4. Young people like to _____ for their prom. wear dress up put
5. Many teenagers _____ school uniform in the UK. wear dress up put
6. Their mothers _____ each girl a life-sized Barbie box. did had made
7. The average prom _____ parents over £200 per teenager. costs spends pays
8. Films such as ‘High School Musical’ _____ a big influence on their kids. have make do

Do you have a disco, party or prom at your school?

What do you do to celebrate finishing school? What are the advantages and disadvantages for having a school prom?

Answers

1. 1. True 2. False 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. False 

2.

clothes	vehicles	shoes	jobs
jeans	car	high heels	babysitting
tie	trailer	trainers	Shop work
dress	limo		waitress
suit	limousine

             

3. 1. have 2. held 3. hold 4. dress up 5. wear 6. made 7. costs 8. have

B2 Grammar: Relative clauses

Relative pronouns and relative clauses

                  relative clause

The man  who phoned you  is my doctor.

A clause is part of a sentence. Relative clauses start with these relative pronouns: who, which, that, whose, where, when and why.

Defining relative clauses

Relative clauses which tell you which person or thing the speaker is talking about are called defining relative clauses. They give essential information, e.g. The doctor who treated me is my cousin. The relative clause (underlined) tells us which doctor we are talking about.

Non-defining relative clauses

Relative clauses which give you extra information are called non-defining relative clauses: My doctor, who belongs to the same tennis club as you, vaccinated me yesterday. We already know which doctor (it’s my doctor); who belongs to the same tennis club as you, vaccinated me yesterday. We already know which doctor (it’s my doctor); who belongs to the same tennis club as you does not tell us which doctor we are talking about; it just adds extra information.