B2 Grammar: Past tenses

Past simple, past continuous and used to

The past simple is used for:

• actions or events in the past: I visited Egypt last year.
• actions or events which happened one after another: I saw the Pyramids, then I went round the Cairo Museum and later I went to a traditional restaurant.
• things which happened for a long time in the past: She lived in Zurich for ten years from 1992 to 2002.

The past continuous is used for:

• an activity which started before and continued until an event in the past: He was driving to work when his car broke down (the activity of driving was interrupted by the problem with the car).

                                He was driving to work   X

                                --------------------------→  ↑

                                                         The car broke down

• an activity which started before and continued after an event in the past: I was watching television when the news was announced (and I continued to watch television afterwards).

                                 I was watching television

                                 -----------------------------→

                                                    ↑

                                 the news was announced

Tattoos

Love them or hate them, tattoos are really popular nowadays in the UK. What do you think of tattoos?

In Britain, tattoos used to be seen mainly on sailors, prisoners and bikers and were considered as a sign of being a rebel. However, now they are popular with all kinds of people and it’s pretty normal to have a tattoo these days.

Which design?

Japanese and Chinese characters, and loved ones' names are among the most popular designs today. Mario, who runs his own tattoo parlour, says ‘I have more women than men customers. Women often prefer smaller designs like stars, flowers, cherubs and men are into much bigger images.’ Many well known Brits have tattoos. Here are some of them:

• David Beckham has a crucifixion scene and his kids’ names on his back. He has a tattoo in Hindi of his wife’s name.
• Victoria Beckham has stars on her back to symbolise the members of her family.
• Robbie Williams has a lion on his right arm, Maori designs on his left arm, a French phrase on his collar bone, the musical notes to ‘all you need is love’ on lower his back, ‘I love you mother’ on his arms, 2 birds on stomach and many more!
• Kate Moss has a small crown on her shoulder.
• Samantha Cameron, wife of the British Prime Minister, has a dolphin tattooed on her ankle.

Superstitions

Do you get nervous when a black cat walks in front of you? Do you avoid walking under ladders? If you broke a mirror would you expect to get 7 years` bad luck?

If the answer is ´yes´ to any of these question then you are clearly a superstitious person.

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Superstitions

Superstitions can be defined as, "irrational beliefs, especially with regard to the unknown" (Collins English Dictionary)

They cause us to act in strange ways, believe in odd things and leave us unable to explain the reasons why.

Many superstitions may seem silly, even stupid to us today, but they continue to influence our behaviiour and many people would argue that there are in fact some very good reasons for avoiding black cats and walking around ladders.

Common Superstitions Explained

In most cases, the reasons behind common superstitions can be traced back to medieval or even ancient times. They are quite often even more peculiar than the beliefs they attempt to explain.

Black cats are the source of literally hundreds of unlucky to step on their tails. They even bring bad luck into a house if they sneeze inside!

This unfortunate connection with misfortune dates back to theMiddle Ages when they became associated with witches and were thought to harbour evil spirits.

There are very practical reasons for thinking twice before waling under a ladder, but a more mysterious explanation can be traced back to ancient Egypt. The early Egyptians beleived that the shape of the Pyramids had a special power. It was considered very bad luck to break the ´power´ of this shape and that´s exactly what walking under a ladderwould do!

In Roman times people had the habit of looking at their refelctions in pools of water. Some believed that these  refelctions were in fact ´glimpses of the soul´. Any disruption to the water, such as a stone being thrown into the pool, would bring bad luck to the person looking in. This superstition lives on with the fear of bad luck from breaking a mirror.

Group Superstitions

Certain groups of people involved with dangerous or unpredictable activities tend to be very superstitious indeed.

Actors: There are lost of Do´s and don´ts to be followed backstage in the theatre.

One of the biggest Don´ts concerns the name of Macbeth, one of Shakespeare´s most famous plays, If anyone sasys the name backstage then the cast will have all sorts of unlucky problems and the show will certainly fail. Also, actors never wish each other, ´good luck´ before a performance as it might have the opposite effect. It´s safer to tell an actor heading for  the stage to, ´break a leg´!

Sailors: Long, dangerous journeys on wild and unpredictable oceans have made sailors very aware of lucky and unlucky signs. Bad luck is caused by stepping on board a ship with your left foot, starting a cruise on Friday and throwing stones into the sea. Good luck will follow a ship if there are dolphins swimming nearby or there is a naked woman on board! Think about the figureheads on old sailing boats with a naked woman at the front, calming the seas.

Athletes: The great Michael Jordan wore his old college shorts underneath his Chicago Bulls uniform for an extra bit of good fortune on the court and Tiger Woods favours wearing the colour red on Sundays for similarly superstitious reasons. Amateur golfers can have a successful day on the course if they start their round with odd numbered clubs and don´t use balls with numbers higher than 4! It´s also lucky to set out on a rainy day, but definitely not okay to borrow your partner´s umbrella.

Football players don´t let the side down and have numerous eccentricties of  thir own. West Hams´ ex-player Paolo Di Canio always puts his shin pads on his left leg first. Steven Gerrard ant the Liverpool players like to touch the, ´This is Anfield´ sign in the tunnel on their way to the pitch, but nothing tops Chelsea´s ex-player Eidur Gudjohnsen, who goes to the loo just after the warm up, kisses his shirt twice (for two goals) and says a prayer thanking God for his health and the hearlth of his teammates as he runs onto the field!

Global Superstitions

Finally, here are a few curious beliefs from around the world.

If you don´t cover your bald head it will start raining. - Afghanistan

If you shave your head on a Saturday, you will be in perpetual debt. - Africa

You´ll ´cut off´ fortune if you use scissors on New Year´s Day.- China

You shouldn´t wash your hair the day before an exam. - Russia

If you go to the bathroom in the night with no clothes on, insects will fall on you. - Japan

Task

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B2 Grammar: Conditionals

Zero, first and second conditionals

Conditional sentences express a condition (If …) and the consequence of the condition.

The consequence can be expressed before or after the condition: If you come to Canada, we can visit Vancouver. We can visit Vancouver if you come to Canada.

Note: If the condition comes first, a comma is used. If the consequence comes first, no comma is used.

Zero conditional

If + present tense, - present tense: If the teacher is late, it sets a bad example to the class.

Zero conditional is used to express:

• Things which are always or generally true: People get annoyed if you shout at them
• Scientific facts: If water boils, it evaporates.

First conditional

If/Unless + present tense, - future tense / modal verb (may, can, should, etc.) / imperative: If you wash the car, it will look much smarter. You can have an ice cream if you behave well. If he phones, tell him I’m in a meeting. I won’t phone you unless it’s urgent. You shouldn’t go swimming unless you think it’s safe.

The first conditional is used to express a future condition the speaker thinks is possible or likely: If I get the job, I’ll buy myself a new car.

Second conditional

If/Unless + past tense, - would/could/might + infinitive: If she wasn’t so busy, she could come to the party. I would go or a walk, if it wasn’t so cold.

The second conditional is used to express a present or future condition which is imaginary, contrary to the facts, impossible or improbable:

If I was as rich as Bil Gates, I wouldn’t work (this is imaginary).

I wouldn’t fly in a helicopter unless I was sure it was completely safe (this is imaginary).

Her English would be better if she came to class more often (contrary to the facts – she doesn’t come to class often enough).

Indirect questions

Indirect questions are questions which you introduce with a short phrase, e.g. Do you know …, Could you tell me …, I wonder …, I’d like to know …

This type of question is used when:

• you are talking to someone you don’t know, or
• you are writing a letter or email.

When you ask an indirect question:

• the order of the words in the question is the same as a normal sentence, e.g.

direct question: How long have you been studying English?

indirect question: Can you tell me how long you have been studying English?

direct question: When can I phone you?

indirect question: I wonder when I can phone you.

• the auxiliary verbs do, does and did are not used to form questions: the question has the same form as a normal sentence, e.g.

direct question: Does the train to Paris leave from this platform?

indirect question: Could you tell me if the train to Paris leaves from this platform?

direct question: Did she speak to the headmaster?

indirect question: Do you know if she spoke to the headmaster?

• use a question mark (?) when the introductory phrase is a question, e.g.

Could you tell me why you haven’t done your homework yet?

• Do not use a question mark (?) when the introductory phrase is not a question, e.g.

I’d like to know how much the course costs.

• Use if or whether to introduce questions where you expect the answer yes or no, e.g.

direct question: Is the university near the city centre?

indirect question: Can you tell me if/whether the university is near the city centre?

B2 Grammar: So and such, too and enough

So and such

So and such (a/an) mean very, extremely: That was so kind of you! You have such a beautiful house.

So and such (a/an) are used to talk about cause and effect: He was so late that he missed the beginning of the exam. She gave such a good performance that she won an Oscar.

So	Such
so + adjective or adverb (+that): ·         He was so nervous before the exam that he couldn’t sleep at all. ·         That remark was just so silly! ·         He cooks so well that I think he’ll win the competition.	such + adjective + uncountable noun / plural noun (+that): ·         She has such nice children! ·         Switzerland has such spectacular scenery that we always choose it for our holidays.
So + much/many/few/little + noun (+that): We had so little money left at the end of our holiday that we had to sleep at the station. Marta makes so many mistakes when she’s speaking!	Such a/an + adjective + singular countable noun (+ that): Why did you come in such an old pair of jeans? It was such a beautiful day that we decided to go for a picnic. Such a lot of … Elena’s got such a lot of friends that the telephone never stops ringing.

B2 Grammar: Countable and uncountable nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Nouns can be either countable (C) or uncountable (U).

Some nouns can be both countable (C) and uncountable (U), but with a difference in meaning: They say it’s healthy to drink tea (U) (tea in general). Would you like a tea (C) (a cup of tea)? Living in a large house is a lot of work (U). That picture is a work (C) of art.

The grammar for countable nouns is different from the grammar for uncountable nouns.

Countable nouns: Use a our an in the singular, e.g. a job, an animal Can be made plural, e.g. cars, books Use some and any in the plural, e.g. some friends, any answers. Use few and man in the plural, e.g. few students, many years

Uncountable nouns: Do not use a or an Cannot be made plural, e.g. work, music Use verbs in the singular, e.g. the news is good, music helps me relax Use some and any in the singular, e.g. some food, any advice Use little and much, e.g. little information, much homework Use other words to refer to a quantity, e.g. a piece of advice, an amount

Some common uncountable nouns in English Accommodation        advice          behaviour       countryside       damage             equipment Experience                 food             furniture         homework        housework        information Knowledge                luggage        media             music                news                 paper Pollution                    research       scenery           smoke               software           stuff Transport                   work

Articles

The indefinite article A or an are used: ·         With singular, countable nouns mentioned for the first time: A blue car came round the corner. A strange man with a black beard walked through the door. ·         To express rates: He drove at 50 kilometres an hour. She earns €50,000 a year. A or an are not used with uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns: More women go to university in Spain that men. Knowledge makes people powerful. ·         Use an before vowels: an email (but not when “u” or “e” produces a “y” sound: a useful tool, a European student, a university). ·         When “h” is silent, use an: an hour, an honest man. The definite article The is used: ·         With things we have mentioned before or it’s clear who or what we are referring to from the context: I’ve got a new teacher. The teacher is from California. Cold you go to the bank for me, please? (i.e. the bank we always use). ·         With things which are unique: the internet, the Moon ·         With adjectives to express groups: In this country, the rich are growing richer and the poor are growing poorer. ·         With nationalities the French, the Spanish, the Italians (Note: Nationality adjectives ending in –sh, -ch, -ese and –ss have a singular form but are plural in meaning: the English, the Dutch, the Chinese, the Swiss; the English drink a lot of tea, the Chinese are very hard-working. Other nationality adjectives have a plural form and a plural meaning: the Americans, the Poles; I think the Brazilians are going to win the World Cup again. ·         With superlatives: the best,  the longest, etc. ·         With the firs, the second, the third used as adjectives: Manolo won the first prize and Igor won the second. ·         With names of countries which include these words Republic, Kingdom States or Emirates: The United States, The Czech Republic, The United Kingdom, etc. ·         With names of rivers, mountain ranges, seas and oceans: the Nile, the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pacific. Do not use the: ·         When talking in general and in the plural: Teachers are not paid enough. I can’t imagine offices without computers. Life is hard. Everyone needs love. ·         With many common expressions: In/to bed        to church     at home In/to hospital     in/to prison     at/to school At/to university     at/to work He’s in bed. I’m at university. What time do you go to work? She’s been taken to hospital.

B2 Grammar: To infinitive or -ING

Infitinives and verb + -ing forms

Infinitive

The infinitive is used:

• To say why you do something: I’ve just gone running to get some exercise. He’s taken up tennis to make friends.
• To say why something exists: There’s an example to help you.
• After too and enough: It’s too cold to go swimming today. He isn’t good enough to make the national team.

The infinitive is used after these verb patterns:

• Verb + to infinitive: She agreed to meet him after work.

agree          appear          begin          bother          decide          demand          fail

hope          learn          manage          offer          plan          refuse         seem

be supposed          threaten

• Verb + (somebody/something) + to infinitive:

She expected to win the race. I expect you to play in the match.

ask          choose          expect          help          intend          promise          want

• Verb + somebody/something + to infinitive: the money enabled him to go to university.

advise         allow          enable          encourage          forbid          force          invite

order          permit          persuade          recommend          remind          teach

tell          warn

The following verbs from the lists above can be used to report speech:

advise          agree          allow          ask          decide          encourage          forbid          invite

offer          order          permit          persuade           promise          recommend          refuse

remind          tell          threaten          warn

Verb + -ing

The verb + -ing is used:

• After prepositions: He’s made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club. We watched a film about climbing in the mountains.
• As subjects or objects of a sentence: Climbing is safer than it looks. He decided to take up adventure racing.

The verb + -ing is used after these verbs:

admit          appreciate          avoid          celebrate          consider          delay          deny

dislike          enjoy          finish           imagine          involve          keep          mind

miss          postpone          practise          regret          risk          stop          suggest

I really enjoyed winning that match. 
She suggested playing a game of squash after school.

The following verbs from the list can be used in reported speech:

Admit          deny          regret          suggest

The verb + -ing is used after theses expressions:

it’s no good          it’s not worth          it’s no use          it’s a waste of time          can’t stand

can’t bear          can’t help

It’s not worth joining that sports club.
It’s a waste of time entering the competition unless you’re really fit.
I can’t bear watching my team when they play badly.

Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a verb + -ing with the same meaning:

begin          continue          hate*          like*          love*          prefer*          start

I love playing tennis. I love to play tennis.

It continued raining all day. It continued to rain all day.

*When these verbs are used with would, they are always followed by the infinitive: I wouldn’t like to do an adventure race. I’d prefer to watch it on television.

Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a verb + -ing with a difference in meaning

	verb + infinitive	verb + -ing
remember	Did you remember to bring  your running  shoes? (an action you have to do)	I remember feeling very tired at the end of the race (a memory of something in the past)
forget	Don’t forget to bring your tennis racket (an action you have to do).	I’ll never forget winning my first tennis championship (a memory of something in the past)*
regreat	I regret to tell you the race has been cancelled (regret + to say / to tell / to inform means: I’m sorry to give you this information).	I regret not training harder before the race (I’m sorry I didn’t do this).
try	I’m running every day because I’m trying to get fit (my objective is to get fit).	If you want to get fit, why don’t you try swimming? (swimming is a method to reach your objective)
mean	Nadal means to win the championship (this is his intention).	I wanted to be a swimming champion, but it meant going to the pool every day at 5.30 (it involved).
stop	Halfway through the marathon, he stopped to drink some water (in order to drink some water).	When he realised he couldn’t win, he stopped running (he didn’t continue).

*This form is unusual. It is more normal to use (not) remember:

• I don’t remember riding a bike the first time.
• I forget riding a bike the first time.