New Year

Do you want to know what people do on the biggest party night in the UK? Read on to find out.

New Year´s Eve celebrations start in the evening on December 31 in the UK. Some young people go to parties and others stay at home with their family. After the celebrations, it´s traditional to make plans for the new year on January 1. These plans aree called ´New Year´s resolutions´ and the idea is to make some positive changes in your life. Some of the most popular resolutions are: to do more exercise, to stop smoking, to eat more healthily, to save money and  to learn something new. We asked young people around the UK about  their plans and resolutions for the new year.

Reported speech 2

Remember that in reported speech we usually change the tense of the direct statement. The present simple tense changes to the past simple, the past simple changes to the past perfect and so on.

Here are some other points to consider.

‘Can’ and ‘will’

• Direct speech: “I can’t remember his name.” Reported speech: She said she couldn’t remember his name.

‘Can’ and ‘can’t’ in direct speech change to ‘could’ and ‘couldn’t’ in reported speech.

• Direct speech: “I’ll be there for 3 weeks.” Reported speech: He told me he’d be there for 3 weeks.

‘Will’ and ‘won’t’ in direct speech change to ‘would’ and ‘wouldn’t’ in reported speech.

Other modal verbs

• Direct speech: “You could be right.” Reported speech: I said that he could be right.
• Direct speech: “You must call me.” Reported speech: She said that I must call her.

Other modal verbs don’t change in reported speech.

Reporting orders, requests and advice

• Direct speech: “Sit down and shut up!” Reported speech: The teacher told me to sit down and shut up.
• Direct speech: “Can you hold this for me please?” Reported speech: He asked me to hold it.
• Direct speech: “You should do more exercise.” Reported speech: He advised me to do more exercise.

Orders, request and advice can be reported using an infinitive.

Reporting verbs

There are a number of verbs that we use to report statements. These can make your speech and writing more interesting than simply reporting every word of the direct speech.

• Direct speech: “It wasn’t me who broke the window.” > He denied breaking the window.
• Direct speech: “I’ll help you if you want” > She offered to help.

There are a number of verbs that can be used to report. They include: promise, claim, suggest, advise, refuse, argue,confirm and others.

Reported questions

When we report what people say, we usually change the tense of the verbs to reflect that we are reporting – not giving direct speech. This pattern is followed when we report questions and there are also other important changes between direct questions and reported questions.

Yes/no questions

• Direct question: “Do you like working in teams?” Reported question: He asked if I like working in teams.

When we report yes/no questions we use ‘if’ or ‘whether’.

• Direct question: “Did you enjoy the party?” Reported question: She asked me whether I’d enjoyed the party.

The tense of the verb changes as it does in reported speech but we don’t use auxiliary verbs. The word order is the same as in an affirmative sentence.

Questions with a question word

• Direct question: “What time does the train leave?” Reported question: He asked what time the train left.

When there is a question word (what, where, why, who, when, how) we use that question word in the reported question but there is no auxiliary verb and the word order is like an affirmative sentence (‘what time the train left’ not He asked me what time did the train leave.)

Look at some more examples:

• Direct question: “Who did you see?”
• Reported question: She asked me who I’d seen.
• Direct question: “Where did you go to school?”
• Reported question: He asked me where I’d gone to school.
• Direct question: “Why are you crying?”
• Reported question: She asked him why he was crying.

Notice that the reported questions do not have a question mark at the end.

Indirect questions

Similar to reported questions are indirect questions.

• Can you tell me what time the train leaves? NOT Can you tell me what time does the train leave?
• I’d love to know what he said to her. NOT I’d love to know what did he say to her.

A short history of Christmas traditions

With only a few weeks left until Christmas, our biggest winter festival is just around the corner! So, we all know why we celebrate Christmas; the birth of Jesus, Bethlehem, the three wise men ... but do we know why we celebrate in the way we do? The tree, the turkey, mistletoe, card-giving? Have you ever wondered where our best loved Christmas traditions come from?

Well actually, most of them can be attributed to the Victorians; Queen Victoria and her husband specifically. Take the Christmas tree which is arguably one of the most iconic symbols of Christmas. Although the symbolic tree dates back to pagan tree-worshiping traditions in Europe, the modern Christmas tree as we know it today was brought to England by German-born Prince Albert. In 1848 the Illustrated London News published a drawing of  the royal family celebrating around a decorated fir tree, a tradition that was reminiscent of Prince Albert´s childhood in Germany. Soon afterwards every home in Britain had a tree covered with homemade decorations, fruit, sweets and candles.

The Christmas feast has its roots from before the Middle Ages, but it´s during the Victorian period that the dinner we now associate with Christmas began to take shape. Previously, meats such as beef and goose were the centrepiece of the Christmas dinner. Turkey however was favoured by the wealthier, middle class sections of 19th century society and before long it had became the fashionable choice; by the late 20th century it was the dominant meat in a traditional Christmas day feast!

The ´official´ Christmas card didn´t come about until the 1840s. It all started with Henry Cole. He commissioned an artist to design a card for Christmas. The image was a joyous and festive one and promptly encouraged people to make their own. The advancement of colour printing technology and the halfpenny postage rate helped the Christmas card industry take off and in 1880 the Christmas card industry had produced 11.5 million cards in that year alone. The beginnings of a commercialised Christmas?

Christmas carolling today is a seasonal tradition to wish our neighbours a merry Christmas in song, but carolling originally had little to do with Christmas. Carols of the 12th and 13th centuries were liturgical songs reserved for church processions. Many of the more popular seasonal songs we associate with Christmas - "Hark! the Herald Angels Sing!", "The First Noel" , and"God Ret Ye Merry Gentlemen" - were written during the 19th century.

Lastly, the elusive mistletoe. Celtic legen says the plant can bring good luck, heal wounds, increase fertility and ward off evil spirits. While the tradition of kissing underneath the mistletoe, unsurprisingly, began in the Victorian era. They believed that a kiss under the mistletoe would inevitably lead to marriage!

B2 Grammar: All about adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives with –ed and –ing

·         Adjectives with –ed express how the person feels about something: She was terrified as Dracula approached her.

·         Adjectives with –ing are used to describe the person or thing which produces the feeling: There’s a surprising article in today’s newspaper (I felt surprised when I read it).

·         Not all of these types of adjective have both forms, e.g. elated but not elating.

Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs

Comparative forms Adjective/adverbs + -er                  + than                    Tennis is cheaper than golf. More + adjective/adverb                                              Golf is more expensive than tennis. Superlative forms The + adjective/adverb + -est                                       Chess is one of the cheapest hobbies. The most + adjective/adverb                                        Playing team sports is the most sociable                                                                                      free-time activity.

Comparison of adjectives

Add –er and –est with: ·    One-syllable adjectives: Fiona is fitter than last year. ·    Two-syllable adjectives ending in –y and –ly, e.g. happy, friendly: My brother’s the friendliest person in my family.	Use more and most with: ·    Adjectives of two syllables or more (except two-syllable adjectives ending in –y or –ly): Biking is the most dangerous activity.
These adjectives form irregular comparisons: good – better – best                                          bad – worse – worst much – more – most                                         many – more – most little – less – least                                             far – farther/further / farthest/furthest old – elder – eldest (for brothers and sisters)
Spelling When there is just one vowel before one final consonant, the final consonant is doubled: hot – hotter, fat – fatter (BUT clean – cleaner, safe  – safer.) Final –y becomes –i: easy – easier, healthy – healthier.
To say two things are the same, use as + adjective + as: She finds doing aerobics as interesting as playing team sports (this means: she finds doing aerobics and playing team sports equally interesting). To say that one thing is less than another, use: ·    Not so/as + adjective + as: Window shopping is not so/as enjoyable as clubbing. ·    Less/least + adjective: Playing chess is less healthy than playing team sports. Clubbing is the least healthy.

Comparison of adverbs

Add –er and –est with: ·    One-syllable adverbs, e.g. hard, fast, straight: My mum works harder than my dad.	Use more and most with: ·    Two-syllable adverbs including adverbs ending in –ly: Maria read the text more quickly than Susanna. She visits me more often than in the past.
These adverbs form irregular comparisons: Well – better – best                                badly – worse – worst
To say two things are the same, use as + adverb + as: Julia finished the exercise as quickly as Mark (Julia and Mark finished the exercise equally quickly). To say that we do one thing differently from another, use: ·    Not so/as + adverb + as: Sophie doesn’t speak Spanish so/as well as Gordon.

The stress of social media

WhatsApps, Facebook messages, Texts, Calls, Instragams, Snapchats, Tweets.

Will we ever be free from the constant stream of notifications? The headache caused by your phone beeping and vibrating 24/7? Being contactable whenever and wherever you are?

Don´t get me wrong, I´d find it really difficult to be sociable without social media. It would be extremely hard to keep in contact with friends and family, especially is they live far away. Organising meet-ups would be a nightmare - imagine having to set a date in writing or in person, weeks in advance, What would happen if you were running late? You wouldn´t even be able to ping your friends a text to let them know. Events on Facebook and Whatsapp group messages have made organising everything so easy. They´ve enabled spontaneity - if it´s a sunny day, why not go for a picnic in the park? Without notifications about the weather, an app for maps on your phone or a Facebook group message to invite your friends and decide who should bring strawberries and who should bring crisps, where would we be? Stuck at home, wishing we´d predicted good weather today when we last saw our friends in person.

But I find social media stressful. If you´re not checking your phone at least every half an hour, you might miss out on something important or fun. If you don´t message that friend you haven´t seen in a while, they might think you´ve forgotten about them. If you don´t remember to shower your bestie with ugly selfies, you might not keep up that Snapchat streak!

If you´re meant to be doing homework, can you resist the temptation to check why your phone is flashing? If you have friends round and there´s a lull in conversation, are you tempted to tap out a quick reply to your friend on the other end of the internet rather than playing a game with your friends on the sofa next to you?

In the 21st century contact is quicker and easier, but that doesn´t mean we have more free time. If anything, the opposite. The ability to send a quick message to one friend means we have time to send one to five others, and before you know it you´re having five conversations at once. How can you really concentrate on any of them? And if your Twitter or Instagram feed is buzzing, why bother going outside to kick a football about or signing up for music lessons? You´re entertained enough - you just never have time to relax, let off steam, enjoy the world. Try leaving your phone at home and doing something productive, maybe even alone, today - you might feel all the better for it.

How to use quantifiers

How to give your opinions?

When we give our opinion, we say what we think, feel or believe about something or somebody.

Below are some phrases that you can use to help express opinions. Some of these phrases are more appropiate for written English such as giving your opinion in an essay whereas some can also be used in spoken English.

How to give your opinion in English?

Personal Point of View

We use these words and phrases to express a personal point of view:

"In my experience..."

"As far as I´m concerned ..."

"I´m absolutely convinced ..."

"Speaking for myself ..."

"In my opinion ..."

"Personally, I think ..."

"I´d say that ..."

"I´d suggest that ..."

"I´d like to point out that ..."

"I believe that ..."

"What I mean is ..."

"It´s obvious to me ..."

There are at least 3 ways to give a personal opinion.

Using stative verbs in the continuous form

Angelic Dan is being bad today! But 'bad' Dan has some 'good' tips for using state verbs in the continuous form.

Watch the video and complete the activity

B2 Grammar: Past tenses

Past simple, past continuous and used to

The past simple is used for:

• actions or events in the past: I visited Egypt last year.
• actions or events which happened one after another: I saw the Pyramids, then I went round the Cairo Museum and later I went to a traditional restaurant.
• things which happened for a long time in the past: She lived in Zurich for ten years from 1992 to 2002.

The past continuous is used for:

• an activity which started before and continued until an event in the past: He was driving to work when his car broke down (the activity of driving was interrupted by the problem with the car).

                                He was driving to work   X

                                --------------------------→  ↑

                                                         The car broke down

• an activity which started before and continued after an event in the past: I was watching television when the news was announced (and I continued to watch television afterwards).

                                 I was watching television

                                 -----------------------------→

                                                    ↑

                                 the news was announced

Tattoos

Love them or hate them, tattoos are really popular nowadays in the UK. What do you think of tattoos?

In Britain, tattoos used to be seen mainly on sailors, prisoners and bikers and were considered as a sign of being a rebel. However, now they are popular with all kinds of people and it’s pretty normal to have a tattoo these days.

Which design?

Japanese and Chinese characters, and loved ones' names are among the most popular designs today. Mario, who runs his own tattoo parlour, says ‘I have more women than men customers. Women often prefer smaller designs like stars, flowers, cherubs and men are into much bigger images.’ Many well known Brits have tattoos. Here are some of them:

• David Beckham has a crucifixion scene and his kids’ names on his back. He has a tattoo in Hindi of his wife’s name.
• Victoria Beckham has stars on her back to symbolise the members of her family.
• Robbie Williams has a lion on his right arm, Maori designs on his left arm, a French phrase on his collar bone, the musical notes to ‘all you need is love’ on lower his back, ‘I love you mother’ on his arms, 2 birds on stomach and many more!
• Kate Moss has a small crown on her shoulder.
• Samantha Cameron, wife of the British Prime Minister, has a dolphin tattooed on her ankle.

Superstitions

Do you get nervous when a black cat walks in front of you? Do you avoid walking under ladders? If you broke a mirror would you expect to get 7 years` bad luck?

If the answer is ´yes´ to any of these question then you are clearly a superstitious person.

Read the article. Next to go task and do the activity.

Superstitions

Superstitions can be defined as, "irrational beliefs, especially with regard to the unknown" (Collins English Dictionary)

They cause us to act in strange ways, believe in odd things and leave us unable to explain the reasons why.

Many superstitions may seem silly, even stupid to us today, but they continue to influence our behaviiour and many people would argue that there are in fact some very good reasons for avoiding black cats and walking around ladders.

Common Superstitions Explained

In most cases, the reasons behind common superstitions can be traced back to medieval or even ancient times. They are quite often even more peculiar than the beliefs they attempt to explain.

Black cats are the source of literally hundreds of unlucky to step on their tails. They even bring bad luck into a house if they sneeze inside!

This unfortunate connection with misfortune dates back to theMiddle Ages when they became associated with witches and were thought to harbour evil spirits.

There are very practical reasons for thinking twice before waling under a ladder, but a more mysterious explanation can be traced back to ancient Egypt. The early Egyptians beleived that the shape of the Pyramids had a special power. It was considered very bad luck to break the ´power´ of this shape and that´s exactly what walking under a ladderwould do!

In Roman times people had the habit of looking at their refelctions in pools of water. Some believed that these  refelctions were in fact ´glimpses of the soul´. Any disruption to the water, such as a stone being thrown into the pool, would bring bad luck to the person looking in. This superstition lives on with the fear of bad luck from breaking a mirror.

Group Superstitions

Certain groups of people involved with dangerous or unpredictable activities tend to be very superstitious indeed.

Actors: There are lost of Do´s and don´ts to be followed backstage in the theatre.

One of the biggest Don´ts concerns the name of Macbeth, one of Shakespeare´s most famous plays, If anyone sasys the name backstage then the cast will have all sorts of unlucky problems and the show will certainly fail. Also, actors never wish each other, ´good luck´ before a performance as it might have the opposite effect. It´s safer to tell an actor heading for  the stage to, ´break a leg´!

Sailors: Long, dangerous journeys on wild and unpredictable oceans have made sailors very aware of lucky and unlucky signs. Bad luck is caused by stepping on board a ship with your left foot, starting a cruise on Friday and throwing stones into the sea. Good luck will follow a ship if there are dolphins swimming nearby or there is a naked woman on board! Think about the figureheads on old sailing boats with a naked woman at the front, calming the seas.

Athletes: The great Michael Jordan wore his old college shorts underneath his Chicago Bulls uniform for an extra bit of good fortune on the court and Tiger Woods favours wearing the colour red on Sundays for similarly superstitious reasons. Amateur golfers can have a successful day on the course if they start their round with odd numbered clubs and don´t use balls with numbers higher than 4! It´s also lucky to set out on a rainy day, but definitely not okay to borrow your partner´s umbrella.

Football players don´t let the side down and have numerous eccentricties of  thir own. West Hams´ ex-player Paolo Di Canio always puts his shin pads on his left leg first. Steven Gerrard ant the Liverpool players like to touch the, ´This is Anfield´ sign in the tunnel on their way to the pitch, but nothing tops Chelsea´s ex-player Eidur Gudjohnsen, who goes to the loo just after the warm up, kisses his shirt twice (for two goals) and says a prayer thanking God for his health and the hearlth of his teammates as he runs onto the field!

Global Superstitions

Finally, here are a few curious beliefs from around the world.

If you don´t cover your bald head it will start raining. - Afghanistan

If you shave your head on a Saturday, you will be in perpetual debt. - Africa

You´ll ´cut off´ fortune if you use scissors on New Year´s Day.- China

You shouldn´t wash your hair the day before an exam. - Russia

If you go to the bathroom in the night with no clothes on, insects will fall on you. - Japan

Task

What do you think of this article

B2 Grammar: Conditionals

Zero, first and second conditionals

Conditional sentences express a condition (If …) and the consequence of the condition.

The consequence can be expressed before or after the condition: If you come to Canada, we can visit Vancouver. We can visit Vancouver if you come to Canada.

Note: If the condition comes first, a comma is used. If the consequence comes first, no comma is used.

Zero conditional

If + present tense, - present tense: If the teacher is late, it sets a bad example to the class.

Zero conditional is used to express:

• Things which are always or generally true: People get annoyed if you shout at them
• Scientific facts: If water boils, it evaporates.

First conditional

If/Unless + present tense, - future tense / modal verb (may, can, should, etc.) / imperative: If you wash the car, it will look much smarter. You can have an ice cream if you behave well. If he phones, tell him I’m in a meeting. I won’t phone you unless it’s urgent. You shouldn’t go swimming unless you think it’s safe.

The first conditional is used to express a future condition the speaker thinks is possible or likely: If I get the job, I’ll buy myself a new car.

Second conditional

If/Unless + past tense, - would/could/might + infinitive: If she wasn’t so busy, she could come to the party. I would go or a walk, if it wasn’t so cold.

The second conditional is used to express a present or future condition which is imaginary, contrary to the facts, impossible or improbable:

If I was as rich as Bil Gates, I wouldn’t work (this is imaginary).

I wouldn’t fly in a helicopter unless I was sure it was completely safe (this is imaginary).

Her English would be better if she came to class more often (contrary to the facts – she doesn’t come to class often enough).

Indirect questions

Indirect questions are questions which you introduce with a short phrase, e.g. Do you know …, Could you tell me …, I wonder …, I’d like to know …

This type of question is used when:

• you are talking to someone you don’t know, or
• you are writing a letter or email.

When you ask an indirect question:

• the order of the words in the question is the same as a normal sentence, e.g.

direct question: How long have you been studying English?

indirect question: Can you tell me how long you have been studying English?

direct question: When can I phone you?

indirect question: I wonder when I can phone you.

• the auxiliary verbs do, does and did are not used to form questions: the question has the same form as a normal sentence, e.g.

direct question: Does the train to Paris leave from this platform?

indirect question: Could you tell me if the train to Paris leaves from this platform?

direct question: Did she speak to the headmaster?

indirect question: Do you know if she spoke to the headmaster?

• use a question mark (?) when the introductory phrase is a question, e.g.

Could you tell me why you haven’t done your homework yet?

• Do not use a question mark (?) when the introductory phrase is not a question, e.g.

I’d like to know how much the course costs.

• Use if or whether to introduce questions where you expect the answer yes or no, e.g.

direct question: Is the university near the city centre?

indirect question: Can you tell me if/whether the university is near the city centre?

B2 Grammar: So and such, too and enough

So and such

So and such (a/an) mean very, extremely: That was so kind of you! You have such a beautiful house.

So and such (a/an) are used to talk about cause and effect: He was so late that he missed the beginning of the exam. She gave such a good performance that she won an Oscar.

So	Such
so + adjective or adverb (+that): ·         He was so nervous before the exam that he couldn’t sleep at all. ·         That remark was just so silly! ·         He cooks so well that I think he’ll win the competition.	such + adjective + uncountable noun / plural noun (+that): ·         She has such nice children! ·         Switzerland has such spectacular scenery that we always choose it for our holidays.
So + much/many/few/little + noun (+that): We had so little money left at the end of our holiday that we had to sleep at the station. Marta makes so many mistakes when she’s speaking!	Such a/an + adjective + singular countable noun (+ that): Why did you come in such an old pair of jeans? It was such a beautiful day that we decided to go for a picnic. Such a lot of … Elena’s got such a lot of friends that the telephone never stops ringing.

B2 Grammar: Countable and uncountable nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Nouns can be either countable (C) or uncountable (U).

Some nouns can be both countable (C) and uncountable (U), but with a difference in meaning: They say it’s healthy to drink tea (U) (tea in general). Would you like a tea (C) (a cup of tea)? Living in a large house is a lot of work (U). That picture is a work (C) of art.

The grammar for countable nouns is different from the grammar for uncountable nouns.

Countable nouns: Use a our an in the singular, e.g. a job, an animal Can be made plural, e.g. cars, books Use some and any in the plural, e.g. some friends, any answers. Use few and man in the plural, e.g. few students, many years

Uncountable nouns: Do not use a or an Cannot be made plural, e.g. work, music Use verbs in the singular, e.g. the news is good, music helps me relax Use some and any in the singular, e.g. some food, any advice Use little and much, e.g. little information, much homework Use other words to refer to a quantity, e.g. a piece of advice, an amount

Some common uncountable nouns in English Accommodation        advice          behaviour       countryside       damage             equipment Experience                 food             furniture         homework        housework        information Knowledge                luggage        media             music                news                 paper Pollution                    research       scenery           smoke               software           stuff Transport                   work

Articles

The indefinite article A or an are used: ·         With singular, countable nouns mentioned for the first time: A blue car came round the corner. A strange man with a black beard walked through the door. ·         To express rates: He drove at 50 kilometres an hour. She earns €50,000 a year. A or an are not used with uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns: More women go to university in Spain that men. Knowledge makes people powerful. ·         Use an before vowels: an email (but not when “u” or “e” produces a “y” sound: a useful tool, a European student, a university). ·         When “h” is silent, use an: an hour, an honest man. The definite article The is used: ·         With things we have mentioned before or it’s clear who or what we are referring to from the context: I’ve got a new teacher. The teacher is from California. Cold you go to the bank for me, please? (i.e. the bank we always use). ·         With things which are unique: the internet, the Moon ·         With adjectives to express groups: In this country, the rich are growing richer and the poor are growing poorer. ·         With nationalities the French, the Spanish, the Italians (Note: Nationality adjectives ending in –sh, -ch, -ese and –ss have a singular form but are plural in meaning: the English, the Dutch, the Chinese, the Swiss; the English drink a lot of tea, the Chinese are very hard-working. Other nationality adjectives have a plural form and a plural meaning: the Americans, the Poles; I think the Brazilians are going to win the World Cup again. ·         With superlatives: the best,  the longest, etc. ·         With the firs, the second, the third used as adjectives: Manolo won the first prize and Igor won the second. ·         With names of countries which include these words Republic, Kingdom States or Emirates: The United States, The Czech Republic, The United Kingdom, etc. ·         With names of rivers, mountain ranges, seas and oceans: the Nile, the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pacific. Do not use the: ·         When talking in general and in the plural: Teachers are not paid enough. I can’t imagine offices without computers. Life is hard. Everyone needs love. ·         With many common expressions: In/to bed        to church     at home In/to hospital     in/to prison     at/to school At/to university     at/to work He’s in bed. I’m at university. What time do you go to work? She’s been taken to hospital.